Changing Face of U.S. Currency

1882 Gold Certificate with Jackson portrait (Kurt/Wikimedia Commons)

There has been a great deal of discussion of late after the U.S. Treasury Department announced that Harriet Tubman's image would replace that of former President Andrew Jackson on the twenty dollar bill.  Previous plans were to replace Alexander Hamilton on the ten dollar note with a woman.  After a great deal of debate, Secretary Lew decided to change the $20 instead after an outpouring of support to keep Hamilton.

This makes a great deal of sense from a historical perspective.  Hamilton almost single-handily created the American financial system during the early years of the republic and one might argue that he, more than anyone, deserves to be on some form of U.S. currency.  The choice of Jackson on the $20, which occurred in 1928 during a bevy of portrait selections that year, never made a great deal of sense.  There appears to be no documentation as to why he was selected (other than he was and is considered one of America's great presidents).  However, the fact that Jackson killed the Second Bank of the United States and opposed paper currency makes him an odd choice.  The point that he is on the most used bill in U.S. currency is ironic at best.  One can ponder how Jackson would feel about being on paper currency and come up with a relatively sure conclusion that he would be mad as hell!

Perhaps this is the right time for change.  From a historians perspective, it does have a great deal of merit because it has people engaging in discussion about Jackson's legacy and history in general.  It is always a good thing when Americans examine their past.  It also provides a spark for debate over who should replace him.  Harriet Tubman's selection is very revealing of the times which we live and demonstrates the great progress we have made as Americans when we choose to put an African-American woman on the twenty.  

Traditionalists have argued against the change, but it is important to remember that changes to currency have happened repeatedly since the founding of the republic.  Modern currency was established in 1913 with the Federal Reserve Act which established the Federal Reserve as the nation's central bank. In 1914, the reserve began to issue bills called Federal Reserve notes which are still in use today.  Currency portraits have changed since those bills were instituted and many time before 1914.

Jackson appeared on U.S. currency eighteen times throughout our history and although he is now being removed, perhaps we can move from debate to a thorough discussion of his importance and legacy to our country.  Jackson was our first "populist" president and in today's political environment that should be more than enough fuel to help get the discussion started.

Santa Maria Discovered?

Recent news outlets have trumpeted the possible discovery of Christopher Columbus's flagship the Santa Maria off the coast of Haiti.  According to a report by USA Today, explorer Barry Clifford claims to have found the vessel after originally eliminating the site as the proper one in 2003. Clifford returned to the site, which is located off the north coast of Haiti, after reevaluating photographs of the initial survey done by his team.  He was studying fifteenth-century ordinance at the time and came to the conclusion his son had photographed a lombard (ships ordinance/cannon) during the initial survey.  After determining he had found the correct resting place of the Santa Maria during the initial survey, he and his team returned to Haiti in order to conduct a more thorough investigation. Unfortunately, the wreck was looted, with the lombard and several other pieces (wheels used to maneuver the piece and a rudder mechanism) missing from the site when Clifford's team returned. Despite the missing artifacts, Clifford believes he has the correct site based on a field of ballast stones which correspond to the length of the Santa Maria (40 feet long and 20 feet wide) and the his photographs of the lost items.
Although Clifford is extremely optimistic that he has found Columbus's ship, other experts are cautioning against early conclusions and warn that the ship will "tell its own story," according to a article from The Independent, which first reported on the discovery.  Clifford is a polarizing figure within the marine archaeological community, having been accused of unsavory methods during excavations of both the Whydah (a slave/pirate vessel) and Fiery Dragon (Pirate Christopher Condent's flagship).  In both cases Clifford was accused of using too much publicity and questionable techniques in order to entice investors to his projects.  This resulted in a high turn-over rate among his archaeologists, who were uncomfortable with his methods.
While Clifford has his detractors, he also has his supporters.  He has worked with National Geographic on numerous documentaries and is a listed speaker for the organization.  He is the author of numerous books that detail his adventures and his Whydah exhibition  met with a good deal of success.  He currently runs Whydah Group Inc.  If the wreck in Haiti proves to be the Santa Maria, it will ensure his reputation and provide the world with its first real archaeological evidence of Columbus in the New World.

“Most Awful and Most Lamentable Catastrophe - President John Tyler and the U.S.S. Princeton" Final Act

The wounded and dead were transported to Washington, with the dead lying in state until Saturday, March 2, when a funeral, rivaling that of President Harrison three years before was held in the capital.  The explosion of the “Peacemaker” was the greatest peacetime disaster the United States had experienced.  The arrangements were full of solemn ceremony and thousands lined the streets of the capital as the funeral procession made its way to the Congressional Ceremony. 

After his earlier narrow escape from death, President Tyler faced it yet again on his trip back from the funeral.  As the President’s carriage prepared to return to the White House something spooked the horses causing the carriage to race out of control down Pennsylvania Avenue, which was still packed with mourners.  The horses galloped through the heart of the market district, with people hurling themselves out of the way.  Tyler and his son desperately attempted to help the driver to gain control but were unsuccessful, and it was not until an unidentified black man stepped into the street and stopped the team that Tyler was saved from serious injury.

             The final toil of the accident had far greater implications than the deaths.  The deaths of Upshur and Gilmer deprived Tyler of his two best people working on the Texas issue and the most important architects of the administration’s annexation policy.  Issac Van Zandt, the Texas diplomat who helped forge the treaty, wrote President Anson Jones, “occurrence will have, I fear, and unfavorable influence on our affairs here.  Texas has lost two of her best friends in this country; their places will be difficult to fill.” 

            Abolitionist enemies of the Tyler administration saw the explosion of the Princeton as an act of Providence which, in the judgment of Joshua Leavitt, “will probably defeat the Texas scheme for present.”  Abolitionists hoped that Tyler would not be able to annex Texas prior to the  presidential election, opening the way for a anti-annexationist candidate who once and for all would scuttle the Texas project.

President Tyler

 John C. Calhoun was appointed as Secretary of State (under pressure from Virginia Senator Henry Wise)  soon after the accident.  Supposed fears of Texas annexation as a slave state plot were confirmed in the minds of Northern politicians, who fearing the loss of Congressional power, joined abolitionists in their opposition.  Former President Martin Van Buren led the effort to defeat the treaty and it would not be ratified until the last minutes of Tyler’s presidency – crushing his hopes to use annexation as a springboard to another term.

 The inventor Ericsson, so disgusted by the board of inquiry that followed, vowed never to work for the U.S. Navy again.  Stockton was exonerated of any culpability for the accident and went on to grab California from the Mexicans during the Mexican War.  The Navy saw the Princeton as a jinxed ship and although she served in the Mexican War, she had a very short five-year career.  She was underappreciated, with her innovations never understood. The Navy Department quickly decommissioned, broke up, and scrapped the vessel that had ushered in the age of steam-driven iron navies.

“Most Awful and Most Lamentable Catastrophe - President John Tyler and the U.S.S. Princeton" Pt. 3

The Princeton was about 2 miles below Alexandria when the gun was fired.  Sykes later wrote, “The report was not so loud as at the previous discharges,” but the smoke was heavy, “the deck was completely enveloped in smoke for some moments…”  Sykes, whose attention was directed down river in order to watch the ball strike the water, said “I observed some ten or a dozen hats and various pieces of canvass floating on the water at which I was surprized – being utterly unconscious that the gun had burst.”

In fact, the gun had burst as soon as Stockton had pulled the lanyard to the trigger the gun’s lock.  The whole ship shook with the force of the great explosion, with almost everyone on board believing it to be the result of the gun blast.  As the smoke cleared the scene that revealed itself was one of carnage.  “A solemn deathlike and dreadfully awful silence prevailed at the moment neither sigh, groan or shriek being heard.”

The scene upon the deck may more easily be imagined than described . . . what words can adequately depict a scene like this?

            The “Peacemaker” had burst along its left side, shattering into flying fragments of over several thousand pounds of iron.  Stockton lay on the deck, luckily only stunned, with a big peace of metal lying on his chest.  Others were not as fortunate as Stockton, Secretary of the Navy Gilmer, Secretary of State Upshur, along with two members of the gun crew were killed instantly.  Sykes recorded the grisly state of Captain Kennon and Virgil Maxcy, who were killed instantly as well, “Kennon was mangled in the most dreadful manner his breast was completely mashed in, both legs and both arms were broken in several places and one of his feet came off in attempting to get his boot off.  Maxcy’s arm came off about halfway between his arm and wrist as a gentleman took hold of the hand to assist in laying him out…”  His other severed arm struck a lady in the head, covering her face with blood and knocking off her bonnet.  President Tyler’s servant, who had been leaning against the gun, was killed by the concussion as “neither surgeon of the Princeton could discover the slightest wound or injury about him.”  In addition, nine seaman who were around the gun had some of their limbs or bones broken (one had both legs broken).  Ms. Gardiner’s father was also among those who were killed during the accident.

Many other guests suffered serious bruises and lacerations.  Unconscious guests with open head wounds seeping dark, venous blood lay near the destroyed gun.  Senator Thomas Hart Benton, who had been seated on another gun six feet away, felt a blast to the face, and knew nothing more until he woke up a few minutes after the explosion, suffering from shock and a burst ear drum.  The woman who had been holding his arm was blown into the rigging, although amazingly, she was unhurt.  After his initial shock, Stockton brought everything under control and had the ship steaming under full-speed for Alexandria in a very short time.  Surgeons worked on the wounded while crew members laid the dead on mattresses and shrouded them with flags.  The excursion that had begun so joyfully ended with sobs, hushed commiserations, and hysterics.

Honor Saves America Pt. 1

“I heard the bullets whistle, and believe me, there is something charming in the sound.” George Washington

George Washington, commander of the Continental Army, was respected by friend and foe alike for his physical courage.  He was uncommonly, though not uniquely brave.  Washington typified the model of the “lead from the front” officer of the late 18^th century.  The habit of placing himself in front his men in battle often put Washington in real danger of being wounded or killed during battle.  However, Washington’s honor presented no other option; the sound of gunfire drew him like a magnet.  This put him in positions where he could make quick decisions and encourage his troops.  Fortunately for Washington, his courage coincided with remarkable luck.  The battle of Brandywine (Sept. 11, 1777) presented the ultimate test for his good fortune.

The battle of Brandywine was the first major engagement between the British (led by Lieutenant General Sir William Howe) and Washington’s army since the British victory at Long Island in August 1776.  That defeat had resulted in the loss of New York to the Colonial cause for the rest war.  Howe had spent the summer of 1777 attempting to draw Washington into battle, but the American commander had stubbornly refused.  In a final attempt to draw Washington into the open (for what he hoped would be the last battle of the war), Howe embarked 16,000 men at Sandy Hook, NJ, where he hoped to sail his men up the Delaware River to threaten Philadelphia.

Howe’s plans changed when he received faulty intelligence concerning obstructions in the Delaware and as a result decided to enter the Chesapeake Bay, landing at the northernmost point possible and approach Philadelphia overland.   Washington moved to intercept Howe and took up positions at Brandywine Creek, which was the last natural line of defense before the Schuylkill River and Philadelphia.

Among Howe’s officers was Captain Patrick Ferguson.  Ferguson had a brilliant reputation as an officer and inventor.  After becoming interested in musketry, he invented a weapon far superior to the standard Land Pattern (“Brown Bess”) musket.  His weapon was breech loading and weighed a mere 7.5 pounds (compared to the Brown Bess’s 14 pounds).  He demonstrated his rifle’s capabilities to the senior officers in England by firing at a rate of 4 rounds per minute at a target 300 yards away.  He increased the rate of fire to six rounds a minute at a target 100 yards off.  He so impressed his Majesty, King George III, that he was sent to North America with orders to Lord Howe to establish a “Sharp Shooters Corps” to be commanded by Ferguson. Ferguson and his “corps” (consisting of 100 men) were an experimental formation to be tested using the new rifles for one campaign and then returned to their original regiments. They were serving alongside the Queen’s Rangers during the battle of Brandywine. 

Capt. Patrick Ferguson

“Most Awful and Most Lamentable Catastrophe - President John Tyler and the U.S.S. Princeton" Pt. 2

The Princeton conducted her sea-trial on October 17 in which she engaged in a speed contest with the British steamer SS Great Western, beating the fastest recorded ship at the time easily.  The Princeton sailed for New York on January 1, 1844, where she received her two main guns, named Peacemaker and Oregon.

             In order to demonstrate the power of their new vessel, the Navy sent the Princeton to Washington D.C. in late January 1844, with the ship arriving on February 13.  The ship was extremely popular among the populace of the capital, with Stockton (now commander of the Princeton) giving three trial trips with passengers throughout the month.  Reporters who were invited to take part were glowing in their reviews.  A correspondent for the Ohio Statesmen wrote, “…it is impossible to tell you the half that we saw and heard and enjoyed in this excursion…” 

 The display was not without its critics however, with former president John Quincy Adams among the most ardent.  He accused Stockton of using the ship, “to fire their souls with a patriotic ardor for a naval war.”  Adams felt that the name of the guns “Oregon” and “Peacemaker” reflected the desire of some to settle the dispute in the Pacific Northwest with Britain in a less than peaceful fashion.

 

U.S.S. Princeton

            Despite Adam’s objections, the Washington elite were thrilled by the visit and lobbied Stockton to hold a ball on board his vessel.  Stockton refused, but as a compromise agreed to a final excursion on the Princeton, with entertainment on board.  The number of invitations sent out exceeded 400 with half of them being sent to ladies.  Among the luminaries invited was social icon Dolly Madison.  Not everyone was completely caught up in the festive nature of the event.  According to Congressman George Sykes, Capt. Stockton was concerned about having so many luminaries on board and had a feeling that something might go wrong.  Stockton wrote to his wife the night before the event, “Tomorrow – Tomorrow – Oh that tomorrow were past and I could say All is well.”

The Princeton at this time made a most beautiful appearance…

            Whatever trepidations Stockton might have had, they were not reflected among the revelers as there was a festive atmosphere on the morning of February 28.  Sykes would later write, “The day was mild and serene without a cloud – the company were all dressed in their very best and every one seemed pleased and happy.”  The quests were transported from the Washington wharf by steamboat to the Princeton, which was moored six miles downstream.  All the guests were onboard by noon and the fateful cruise got underway shortly after.

            For some two hours or more the quests were entertained by the repeated firing of the “Peacemaker,” and the other guns of the ship’s battery, afterward which they went below decks and were treated to a massive feast which was highlighted by generous amounts of champagne (Tyler’s favorite libation).  Amid the festive and alcohol fueled atmosphere, President Tyler began a series of toasts to the Navy, Stockton, and the Princeton and then guests broke into spontaneous song.  The atmosphere on the nation’s greatest warship was equal to any ball held in the capital at that time, with every guest enjoying the voyage to the utmost.

 The Princeton had come about for her return journey and at approximately four o’clock was passing Mount Vernon again when an officer whispered in Stockton’s ear that one of the guests wanted the gun fired again.  At first Stockton refused, but when he heard the request was from Secretary Gilmer, he consented.  Over one hundred of the guests made their way back on deck where Captain Stockton prepared to pull the gun’s lanyard himself.  President Tyler was making his way toward the deck, when his son-in-law William Waller began singing a “old-fashioned national song”, and turning to Congressman Sykes stated, “ When I was a young man that was one of the most popular songs in Virginia – and as I have not heard it for 20 years or more I prefer returning to the cabin and listening to it instead of seeing the gun fired again.”  It might be added that Tyler was also involved in an exchange with the beautiful Julia Gardiner* and one can understand his desire to remain in her company.  These momentary diversions may have very easily saved his life.

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* The widower Tyler was courting Miss Gardiner, a captivating beauty known as “Belle of Long Island.”  Gardiner was half Tyler’s age which resulted in much tongue-wagging among the Washington elite.

“Most Awful and Most Lamentable Catastrophe - President John Tyler and the U.S.S. Princeton" Pt. 1

President John Tyler

Whig Party candidate William Henry Harrison was elected the ninth president of the United States in 1840, however he did not have long to enjoy the fruits of his victory, as he had the sad distinction of holding that office for a mere 30 days.  The oldest man (until Reagan) to be elected president at 67 years old, Harrison was anxious to demonstrate his vitality after winning the presidency and decided to give his inaugural address without hat or coat.  Unfortunately, bad weather arrived and Harrison was forced to give the longest speech in inaugural history (2 hours) on a cold and rainy day.  The president developed a cold and the added stress of trying to deal with office seekers resulted in the cold becoming pneumonia.  Despite the ministrations of physicians, Harrison would die a short time later and Virginian John Tyler would replace him.     

            Harrison was the first president to die in office and in 1841, the Constitution was silent on the matter of succession.  Tyler, who had served as both a governor and senator, determined to be president-in-full – not merely an “acting president,” which was contrary to the wishes of most of the senior members of Congress.  In their view, another election should be held and a new president elected.  Tyler stood his ground though and seized the presidency when he took the presidential oath (April 6, 1841) as soon as he could get to Washington after Harrison’s death.  President Tyler moved into the White House and became “president-in-fact.”  Despite the fact that Tyler was often referred to as “His Accidency”, both the House and Senate soon passed resolutions recognizing Tyler as the tenth president.  Tyler, a former Democrat, elected on an official Whig ticket, remains the first and only practicing independent to hold the nation’s highest office.

President Tyler soon showed that he was a genuine independent and that he would not serve as a “puppet” for the powerful Congressional leaders Webster and Clay.  He appointed numerous Democrats to government positions and later vetoed as unconstitutional two bills in which Congress had tried to revive the second Bank of the United States.  His entire Whig cabinet resigned in protest (except Webster who was out of country).  Tyler immediately used recess appointments to avoid Senate confirmation proceedings and replaced all cabinet members within two days.  An enraged Whig Party was so furious by Tyler’s betrayal that they denounced him as a traitor and expelled him from the party two days later in a declaration published in newspapers around the nation.  Tyler was officially a political pariah in the capital.  

            President Tyler went on to wield the veto so often and so vigorously that a resolution to impeach him was introduced in the House of Representatives – another first in American history.  Despite the backing of John Quincy Adams, the resolution failed and Tyler continued to vex the Whigs and Democrats alike.

            The issue of Texas annexation was perhaps the most controversial of the issues facing Tyler while in office.  Factions within Texas, an independent republic, hoped to become part of the Union and they were supported by southerners within Congress.  Tyler hoped to draw support for a new political party he was attempting to form by leading the drive to annex Texas and make it a state.  As with all of his other political moves, this one was strongly opposed by political opponents – this time northerner abolitionists, who feared the prospect of another slave state upsetting the sectional balance in Congress.  Tyler saw Texas as his ticket back to political respectability and his new party, the Democratic Republicans, used “Tyler and Texas!” as their slogan.  Arguing that the annexation of Texas would serve the broad national interests, President Tyler hoped to avoid potentially divisive interests of sectionalism.

 

On Feb. 27, 1844, Secretary of State Abel Upshur successfully completed negotiations for a draft treaty with the emissaries of the Lone Star Republic.  Texas citizens were to be granted all the rights and privileges of American citizens, the institution of slavery was to remain intact, and all public lands were to be ceded to the United States in return for U.S. assumption of Texan public debt.  Finally, the treaty stipulated that both parties would ratify the agreement within six months after the initial signing.  Tyler’s supporters had canvassed the Senate and indicated that he was close to securing the two-thirds vote required for ratification.  This victory would redeem him and poise him to win another term. 

            It was within this context (the day after negotiations were completed) that Tyler, Upshur, Secretary of Navy Glimer, and almost 400 other guests prepared for a carefree cruise on the United States Navy’s newest and most powerful warship, the steam frigate U.S.S. Princeton.  The Princeton was a screw-propelled steam frigate and the most technologically advanced warship of her day.  She ran silent and smokeless on a high-grade Anthracite coal and the two vibrating lever engines drove a six-bladed screw 14 ft. in diameter.  The engine was small enough to fit below the waterline (making it impervious to enemy fire).  The ship also had a collapsible funnel, an improved range-finder, and improved recoil systems for her main guns.  This technological marvel was the work of John Ericsson (Swedish nautical engineer who later designed the U.S.S. Monitor).  The construction was partly supervised by Captain Robert F. Stockton, who had navigated the project through the pitfalls of Congressional budgeting.  The Princeton was commissioned on Sept. 9, 1843.